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Collection: Part 11 · VIDEHA MITHILA MAITHILI DISCUSSION CRITICISM SERIES PART 11
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0:02–0:11दिखश, फुल्स कुएशन प्रदूस दिखश विन अस, सच्छ अस इक्ससश अप्ष्मट तु अबज्यक्ट, अवविश्चन तुर्धिट, अन डिलुजझन।
0:11–0:17Activity, under the influence of attachment, aversion, and delusion, a person performs
0:17–0:21good or bad actions.
0:21–0:28Birth and rebirth, to experience the results of these actions, one must be born repeatedly.
0:28–0:33Suffering, wherever there is a body in birth, suffering in the forms of disease, grief,
0:33–0:37and old age naturally occurs.
0:37–0:42Viewed in reverse order, birth causes suffering, action causes birth, defects cause action,
0:42–0:47And the fundamental cause of the defects is false cognition.
0:47–0:52Only when this chain is broken is apavarga or liberation attained.
0:52–0:57If false cognition is the root of all suffering, its sole remedy is knowledge of reality,
0:57–1:00true cognition.
1:00–1:05According to Nyaya, when the true nature of the self, body, and material world is known,
1:05–1:07delusion disappears.
1:07–1:11The cycle is reversed as follows.
1:11–1:15Knowledge of reality destroys false cognition.
1:15–1:20When false cognition is destroyed, defects such as attachment and aversion cease.
1:20–1:26When the defect sees, erroneous activity no longer occurs.
1:26–1:30When action ceases, rebirth no longer occurs.
1:30–1:36When there is no birth, all suffering comes completely to an end in apavarga or liberation.
1:36–1:41This is the principle reason Nyaaya places such emphasis upon the means of knowledge,
1:41–1:43reasoning, and doctrine.
1:43–1:48Without correctly employing perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony, knowledge
1:48–1:52of reality cannot be attained.
1:52–1:57Having understood the perspectives of Nyaaya, with its reasoning and inference, and Kravaka,
1:57–2:03with perception alone, which is more practical for making decisions in daily life, and why?
2:03–2:09Nyaya philosophy is far more practical for decisions in everyday life.
2:09–2:13The Karbaka doctrine that accepts perception alone may sound strict and rational, but it
2:13–2:16would make life impossible.
2:16–2:20If we accepted only what we directly see, we would have to reject science, history,
2:20–2:23and every plan concerning the future.
2:23–2:28Nyaya allows the use of inference and the testimony of experts, enabling us to proceed
2:28–2:31safely through life.
2:31–2:38a modern example. Suppose a person wants to buy a new mobile phone.
2:38–2:43Seeing the phone's screen and design in the shop is perception.
2:43–2:46Considering its battery capacity and processor and concluding that it will function well
2:46–2:52throughout the day is inference. Watching a technology expert's video or
2:52–2:58review on the internet is verbal testimony. If a person buys a phone merely from its
2:58–3:02external shine and appearance without inferring the capacity of its processor or battery and
3:02–3:09without consulting any expert review, would that be a sound decision? Experience shows that
3:09–3:15decisions of this kind require not only perception but inference and testimony as well. Their
3:15–3:20indispensability demonstrates how relevant and practical the sage godama's nyaya philosophy
3:20–3:26remains in the modern age. Without inference and verbal testimony, decisions concerning the
3:26–3:32future unseen matters and expert knowledge remain incomplete. Correct use of the means
3:32–3:37of knowledge produces knowledge of reality, removes false cognition and weakens the root
3:37–3:39cause of suffering.
3:39–3:44In yaya, whether a cognition is valid or erroneous is determined on the basis of the
3:44–3:49capacity for successful activity, practical success.
3:49–3:54In simple terms, a cognition is treated as true when it succeeds in practice. If
3:54–4:00If it directs us toward the correct action and fulfills our purpose, it is valid cognition.
4:00–4:07If it disappoints us or fails to fulfill the purpose, it is invalid cognition or error.
4:07–4:12For example, suppose water appears to be lying on a village road at a distance.
4:12–4:14A person goes there.
4:14–4:19If water is actually found and can be touched, the activity succeeds and the cognition
4:19–4:21is valid.
4:21–4:25If, on arriving, one discovers only sunlight glittering like a mirage and dust blowing
4:25–4:30there, the activity fails and the cognition is an illusion.
4:30–4:34If a rope lying on the road in darkness is mistaken for a snake, how can Nyaya's doctrine
4:34–4:41of practical success be used to test whether the cognition is true or merely an illusion?
4:41–4:45According to Nyaya, one must perform an action based upon the cognition in order
4:45–4:48to test its validity.
4:48–4:52If one merely flees in fear after taking the rope to be a snake, the illusion remains in
4:52–4:54the mind.
4:54–5:00Through the capacity for successful activity, it may be tested as follows.
5:00–5:03Approach it with a torch or stick.
5:03–5:08If it hisses or moves like a snake, the cognition was true.
5:08–5:11If it remains motionless in the light and can be lifted and used to tie something,
5:11–5:17the actual function of a rope, it is established that it is not a snake but merely a rope.
5:17–5:21The first cognition was therefore an illusion.
5:21–5:27The successor failure of action has thus established the truth or falsity of the cognition.
5:27–5:32In social media and news, mistaking invalid cognition for truth has become extremely common
5:32–5:34today.
5:34–5:40When fake news, a deep fake image or video, or a sensational claim appears on social media,
5:40–5:45people often accepted as true and immediately shared without practical verification, fact-checking,
5:45–5:51tracing the original source. From the standpoint of Nyaya, people here mistake the statement
5:51–5:56of an unreliable person or unknown website for trustworthy testimony and believe it without
5:56–6:02examination. This is like raising an alarm after mistaking a rope for a snake in darkness
6:02–6:08without first switching on a torch. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many misleading
6:08–6:12messages circulated on WhatsApp and social media claiming that eating the leaves of
6:12–6:18particular tree or drinking a particular decoction would cure the illness immediately.
6:18–6:23Many people accepted these statements as true without consulting a physician, that is, without
6:23–6:29trustworthy testimony or examining scientific evidence, that is, without testing practical
6:29–6:34efficacy. Only when they followed the advice and obtained no benefit did the practical
6:34–6:39failure reveal that the cognition was not true but merely an illusion.
6:39–6:46Nyaia teaches an important lesson here, a statement does not become true merely because many people repeat or share it.
6:46–6:51Evidence and practical verification are indispensable to truth.
6:51–7:00Nyaia's five-membered argument, called the inference with five members, is a very clear method of establishing a proposition logically.
7:00–7:06Let us understand it through the famous example of the mountain, fire, and smoke.
7:06–7:11Proposition, the claim to be established.
7:11–7:15Example, there is fire on that mountain.
7:15–7:19Reason, the ground for accepting the claim.
7:19–7:23Example, because smoke is rising there.
7:23–7:31Universal rule with example, a rule applying everywhere together with a familiar instance.
7:31–7:36Example, wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in a kitchen.
7:37–7:41Application, applying the rule to the present case of the mountain.
7:42–7:46Example, this mountain too is smoky like the kitchen.
7:47–7:51Conclusion, the final establishment of the claim.
7:52–7:57Example, therefore, it is established that there is fire on that mountain.
7:57–8:02These five members are not confined to philosophy, they provide a strong basis for reasoning
8:02–8:06in modern science and legal procedure as well.
8:06–8:09Now consider an exercise.
8:09–8:13Suppose the following new claim is made.
8:13–8:15Proposition, Rama is ill.
8:15–8:20Reason, because his body is very hot, he has a fever.
8:20–8:263. Universal rule with example, wherever a person's body is abnormally hot, some illnesses
8:26–8:31present, as in a patient admitted to hospital with fever.
8:31–8:37Application. This rule applies to Rama because, like the hospital patient, Rama's body is
8:37–8:46abnormally hot. Conclusion. Therefore, it is established that Rama is ill.
8:46–8:50Notice that the final member, the conclusion, returns to and establishes the first member,
8:50–8:56the proposition. Nyaya's five-membered argument can remove confusion and present any matter
8:56–8:59with logical clarity.
8:59–9:03The Buddha described four noble truths in his teaching.
9:03–9:041.
9:04–9:05Suffering
9:05–9:07Suffering is found throughout the world.
9:07–9:082.
9:08–9:10The origin of suffering
9:10–9:14Suffering has a cause, principally craving, desire, or attachment.
9:14–9:153.
9:15–9:17The cessation of suffering
9:17–9:21Suffering can come to an end, a condition called Nerva.
9:21–9:224.
9:22–9:23The path to the cessation of suffering
9:23–9:27There is a definite path to freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path.
9:29–9:32Nya'ya 2 titta-zapa-varga, release from suffering.
9:33–9:40In this view, false cognition is the root cause of suffering, false cognition produces defects, defects produce action,
9:40–9:42and action perpetuates the cycle of suffering.
9:44–9:47A question for comparative study now arises.
9:47–9:55Buddhist philosophy says that craving is the cause of suffering, whereas Nyaaya says that ignorance or false cognition is its cause.
9:55–10:01Suppose a person sees an advertisement for a new and very expensive mobile phone.
10:01–10:10Ignorance or false cognition, the person comes to believe mistakenly that possessing the phone will bring permanent happiness or greatly enhance social prestige.
10:10–10:15This is Nyaaya's false cognition because pleasure from material objects is never permanent.
10:15–10:21Desire or craving, because of this false belief, an intense desire or attachment arises to
10:21–10:24obtain the phone at any cost.
10:24–10:28This is the Buddhist concept of craving.
10:28–10:33It is clear that ignorance or erroneous understanding has produced the mistaken desire.
10:33–10:38At this point, the two philosophies converge.
10:38–10:42When the person borrows money to buy the phone and it breaks, ignorance and craving
10:42–10:44together become direct suffering.
10:44–10:47The sequence may be understood as follows.
10:47–10:54Action, driven by ignorance and intense desire, the person goes beyond personal means and takes
10:54–10:55a loan.
10:55–10:59According to Nyaya, this is action motivated by false cognition.
10:59–11:06Result, every material object, such as a phone, is perishable and it eventually breaks.
11:06–11:11Suffering, when the phone breaks, the momentary pleasure ends, while the stress of repaying
11:11–11:15the loan and grief over losing the phone remain.
11:15–11:20The cycle therefore operates as follows, ignorance or false thought desire or attachment action,
11:20–11:25such as borrowing suffering in the forms of grief and stress.
11:25–11:28Both Buddhist and Naya philosophy hold that ignorance and attachment toward material
11:28–11:32objects are fundamental sources of suffering.
11:32–11:37The sequence in the cycle of suffering is false cognition, desire, action, and
11:37–11:39suffering.
11:39–11:43Each philosophy has its own path for breaking this cycle.
11:43–11:47Buddhist philosophy in Nirva, through the Noble Eightfold Path, the Buddha principally
11:47–11:52teaches the control and extinction of desire or craving.
11:52–11:57Nyaya philosophy in Apavarga or Liberation, Nyaya holds that knowledge of reality, acquired
11:57–12:02through the correct use of the means of knowledge, destroys ignorance.
12:02–12:07The goal of both philosophies is complete release from suffering, after which the living being
12:07–12:13need not be born again. Their central emphasis in attaining this goal, however, differs.
12:15–12:19The two systems, Nyaya and Buddhism emphasize different links in the chain as the point at
12:19–12:25which it should be broken. Ignorance or false cognition, Nyaya holds that if the
12:25–12:30desire or craving, Buddhist philosophy holds that desire is the principal fuel,
12:30–12:33and controlling it is the most practical and direct remedy.
12:33–12:39For bringing genuine peace and transformation into life, removing ignorance through knowledge
12:39–12:44of reality and controlling desire through the restraint of craving are deeply interconnected.
12:44–12:51When both philosophical traditions, Nyaaya and Buddhism, are considered, each appears incomplete
12:51–12:56without the other. Removing ignorance, the Nyaaya approach, as long as the true nature of objects,
12:56–13:01the world, and oneself is not understood, false cognition persists and happiness continues
13:01–13:06to be sought in the wrong things. When true knowledge of reality is attained, delusion
13:06–13:09ends of itself.
13:09–13:13Controlling desire, the Buddhist approach, when delusion disappears, the intense craving
13:13–13:18produced by ignorance is automatically restrained.
13:18–13:22Which of the two should be chosen depends upon the individual.
13:22–13:26The two paths strengthen each other.
13:26–13:30The path of knowledge in Nyaya, first remove erroneous thought and delusion so that
13:30–13:35things are seen as they truly are in desire than ceases of itself.
13:35–13:39The path of discipline in Buddhism, first control desire and habit so that the mind becomes
13:39–13:44steady in truth can then be understood more easily.
13:44–13:47Consider a practical example.
13:47–13:52Suppose someone wants to stop wasting unnecessary time on a mobile phone, which would be more
13:52–13:57effective in bringing about the change, first restricting the habit by controlling desire,
13:57–14:02first understanding where and why the time is being lost and thereby removing ignorance.
14:03–14:07The two methods have distinct importance and operate differently in practice.
14:09–14:13Understanding first removing ignorance, examining where one's time is going,
14:13–14:17for example by checking screen time, reveals the actual problem.
14:18–14:22This resembles Nya's knowledge of reality, which removes delusion.
14:22–14:28Restricting first, controlling desire, installing an app blocker or turning off notifications
14:28–14:34resembles the Buddhist restraint of craving, which immediately checks the activity.
14:34–14:39A change imposed by forcefully restraining desire without understanding its cause is
14:39–14:41often not permanent.
14:41–14:46Suppressed desire and mental strain may cause the old habit to return.
14:46–14:51This is like cutting only the upper branches of a tree while leaving the root ignorance
14:51–14:56untouched beneath the soil. As long as the root remains, the tree grows again.
14:57–15:02Nyaya and Buddhist philosophy agree that a more lasting solution comes from inner understanding
15:02–15:08rather than from external restraint alone. Taking the analysis further, which should
15:08–15:13receive first priority when a person seeks to change a daily habit, identifying the cause
15:13–15:19and removing ignorance or controlling desire through restraint? Practical life shows that
15:19–15:24most people first restrain desire for immediate relief, but identifying the cause and removing
15:24–15:28ignorance becomes indispensable for permanent change.
15:28–15:34Thus, when abandoning a bad habit, first recognizing its root cause helps eliminate it at the
15:34–15:36root.
15:36–15:40From one's own experience, what seems to be the first effective step in adopting a
15:40–15:44new habit or abandoning an old one, awareness of the cause, or discipline that restrains
15:44–15:47desire?
15:47–15:52These steps play an important role at their proper time in daily life.
15:52–15:57Awareness of the cause, discovering the root cause of a problem provides a long-term solution
15:57–16:01because the root itself is cleared away.
16:01–16:05Discipline or restraint of desire, when a situation is urgent, as when temptation suddenly
16:05–16:10arises, discipline offers immediate protection.
16:10–16:15In practice, people often begin with discipline in an emergency, but awareness of the cause
16:15–16:19is indispensable for making the change permanent.
16:19–16:24Suppose a person must abandon a serious habit such as addiction or excessive use of social
16:24–16:25media.
16:25–16:30Should the person begin with discipline and later move toward awareness, or first cultivate
16:30–16:33awareness and then apply discipline?
16:33–16:37Both approaches have distinct uses in the case of serious habits such as addiction
16:37–16:41or excessive social media use.
16:41–16:46first immediate control, when the condition is severe and dangerous, immediate restraint
16:46–16:51is necessary to halt physical or psychological harm.
16:51–16:56Awareness first, deep understanding, in serious habits, however, discipline alone is unlikely
16:56–17:01to endure unless the person identifies the root cause of… in practice, one generally
17:01–17:06begins with discipline as an emergency measure, but awareness of the cause must immediately
17:06–17:10be added to make the change permanent.
17:10–17:15When discipline breaks down, it may immediately be understood as weak control over desire,
17:15–17:19since at that moment the person fails to resist temptation.
17:19–17:23Behind the weakness, however, lies deeper ignorance, failure to understand the mental
17:23–17:28state or trigger pushing the person toward the temptation.
17:28–17:32Considering both aspects, when someone breaks discipline, what is more necessary in that
17:32–17:39immediate moment, restraint of desire, or understanding the root cause through awareness?
17:39–17:44When temptation is intense, restraint operates like a break that immediately checks it and
17:44–17:46prevents immediate harm.
17:46–17:51But if the person merely restrains the act without understanding the underlying cause, mental
17:51–17:54pressure toward the habit persists.
17:54–17:59Restraint therefore gives immediate protection, whereas awareness eliminates the habit at
17:59–18:01its root.
18:01–18:06Can a serious habit be abandoned permanently through restraint alone, or is awareness necessarily
18:06–18:08required?
18:08–18:14It is generally not possible to abandon a serious habit permanently through restraint or discipline
18:14–18:16alone.
18:16–18:20Restraint acts as an immediate shield, but awareness, a profound understanding of the
18:20–18:23cause, destroys the true root.
18:23–18:27Until the mental trigger or ignorance is understood, the person will return to the
18:27–18:31old habit as soon as restraint weakens.
18:31–18:38The first practical step for developing such awareness of causes in daily life is self-observation.
18:38–18:43This arises when, at the very moment a habit or reaction occurs, a person observes without
18:43–18:47immediately suppressing it and identifies the principal thought or circumstance that triggers
18:47–18:49it.
18:49–18:54For example, before picking up the phone without any necessary task, one recognizes whether
18:54–18:58the true cause is boredom, loneliness, or stress.
18:58–19:03In practice, beginning self-observation by writing somewhere, for example in a diary
19:03–19:06or notepad, often brings greater clarity.
19:06–19:13Writing, when a habit is recorded on paper, it becomes concrete data that makes the situation clearly visible.
19:13–19:23Mental reflection, this requires no external instrument and may be done easily, but distraction often prevents it from remaining stable for long.
19:23–19:27Both methods can be effective according to convenience.
19:27–19:34The principal purpose is not use of a particular instrument but regular attention to one's thoughts.
19:34–19:47Moving to practical application, when a person first sits down to record a small habit such as unnecessarily checking the phone, which two principal details such as time and mental state should be included in the note.
19:47–19:54When recording a habit for the first time, the following two details should principally be written.
19:54–20:04Time and context record the time of day and the particular circumstance in which the habit occurs most often, for example, while sitting idle or during stress.
20:04–20:12Mental state record the actual condition of mind at that moment, such as boredom, loneliness, or mental fatigue.
20:12–20:17Together these two details bring the habits trigger clearly into view.
20:17–20:24A step-by-step analysis based upon both pieces of information is necessary to reach the habit's root cause.
20:25–20:32After recording the time and mental state, one should analyze them by repeatedly asking why and identifying patterns.
20:33–20:38For example, if repeated entries show that the phone is checked most often during boredom or loneliness,
20:39–20:44the data reveal that the problem is connected not merely with using the phone but with the underlying mental emptiness.
20:44–20:51emptiness. Once the mental state has been identified as the principle trigger, what further question
20:51–20:56should the person ask in order to reach the root ignorance underlying the habit?
20:56–21:00After identifying a mental state such as boredom or loneliness, one must determine what one
21:00–21:04actually expects from the object at that moment in order to reach the false cognition
21:04–21:09or ignorance. The person should therefore ask,
21:09–21:13Testing the delusion, am I under the illusion that looking at this phone will permanently
21:13–21:17fill my emptiness or loneliness?
21:17–21:22To test this, attention should be given to the aftermath of using the object.
21:22–21:26After finishing with the phone, one should ask,
21:26–21:31Testing permanence, did my boredom or loneliness truly disappear permanently, or did the emptiness
21:31–21:36return even more forcefully as soon as I put the phone down?
21:36–21:40Once the truth has been tested in this way, the layers of delusion or ignorance gradually
21:40–21:43begin to open.
21:43–21:47When a person sees that the material object is not fulfilling the underlying mental need,
21:47–21:51controlling the desire or craving for it becomes easier.
21:51–21:55Because the mind no longer believes that this thing will satisfy me, relinquishing the
21:55–21:59temptation ceases to be an intense struggle.
21:59–22:05The Effective Truth, When Delusion is Removed, Craving Automatically Weakens.
22:05–22:10Ease of Restraint, Forceful Suppression is no longer required, Control arises naturally
22:10–22:13from understanding.
22:13–22:17When awareness and restraint completely cut the roots of ignorance and craving, the final
22:17–22:22condition is called liberation in Naya and Nerva in Buddhism.
22:22–22:28The principal characteristics of the final condition are as follows.
22:28–22:32Liberation in Naya, the self is permanently freed from every form of suffering and from
22:32–22:35the cycle of birth and death.
22:35–22:41Nerva in Buddhism, the fires of craving, attachment and aversion are completely extinguished,
22:41–22:44which supreme peace is attained.
22:44–22:48The final goal of both philosophies is to eradicate the suffering connected with the
22:48–22:52chain of ignorance and desire.
22:52–22:56Considering the entire journey, which foundation appears most necessary for breaking the cycle
22:56–23:02permanently, external restraint or inner awareness, the understanding of truth.
23:02–23:06The entire journey makes clear that inner awareness, the understanding of truth, is
23:06–23:11the fundamental basis that eliminates the problem at its root, while external restraint functions
23:11–23:17as an immediate protective shield. The two complement each other.
23:17–23:22Now that a person has understood both aspects, what should one think? Once awareness, the
23:22–23:27apprehension of truth has arisen, does restraint come automatically, or must discipline still
23:27–23:32be practiced separately in daily life even when awareness is present?
23:32–23:37Even after awareness has arisen, discipline, continued practice is still separately required
23:37–23:40in daily life.
23:40–23:45Awareness or apprehension of truth enables us to distinguish right from wrong and shows
23:45–23:48us the correct direction in which to proceed.
23:48–23:53Discipline, or continuous practice, helps break deeply rooted physical and mental
23:53–23:58patterns formed over many years and establish new habits.
23:58–24:02For example, a person may fully understand that unnecessary phone use wastes time, this
24:02–24:04is awareness.
24:04–24:09Yet even after acquiring that knowledge, the person must repeatedly exercise discipline
24:09–24:14to stop the hand at the immediate moment of temptation, until the new mental disposition
24:14–24:16becomes stable.
24:16–24:21In practice, small steps or micro habits are considered more effective and lasting in
24:21–24:24changing habits.
24:24–24:30strict rules, imposing a very large rule all at once places excessive pressure on willpower.
24:30–24:36This often produces mental fatigue after a few days, and the rule is then broken.
24:36–24:41Microhabits these gradually establish a new pattern without a major mental struggle, allowing
24:41–24:46the mind to adopt it naturally and without resistance.
24:46–24:51When a person takes a small step, for example, keeping the phone away for only five minutes,
24:51–24:55The mind does not treat it as a great danger or a severe rule.
24:55–24:57A major change arouses resistance in the mind.
24:57–25:03A small step keeps that resistance quiet and prevents mental strain from increasing.
25:03–25:06To examine this more deeply, what should one think?
25:06–25:10Once the mind becomes comfortable with this small beginning, such as five minutes, how
25:10–25:14does that small success motivate the person to proceed further and gradually increase
25:14–25:17the duration?
25:17–25:21When a person succeeds in a small beginning, its psychological effect directly strengthens
25:21–25:24self-efficacy.
25:24–25:25Momentum of success.
25:25–25:30When the mind completes five minutes without a major struggle, it gains a psychological
25:30–25:31victory.
25:31–25:37This encourages the person to repeat the same act the next day.
25:37–25:38Reduction of fear and resistance.
25:38–25:42The fear, I shall not be able to do so much all at once, disappears because the duration
25:42–25:47is small, such as 5 minutes, and the mind feels at ease.
25:47–25:52Having seen that small steps create momentum, what most helps a person maintain that small
25:52–25:56habit consistently throughout this process?
25:56–26:00The most effective way to maintain a small habit consistently is to attach it to an
26:00–26:04already established daily habit, a method known as habit stacking.
26:04–26:10Q, when a person connects a new small step, for example, keeping the phone away for 5
26:10–26:15with an old regular activity, such as immediately before going to sleep each night, the mind
26:15–26:19adopts it as an automatic routine.
26:19–26:24Karma and rebirth are profound philosophical subjects explaining how every act is connected
26:24–26:26with the cycle of life.
26:26–26:30Here we shall together understand how karma bears fruit and how the cycle of rebirth
26:30–26:33operates.
26:33–26:38According to Indian philosophy, every karma, whether thought, speech, or action, creates
26:38–26:43an energy called a sastra. These sastras compel the living being to take another birth
26:43–26:49until consciousness is completely liberated. From which aspect would one prefer to begin
26:49–26:55in order to understand this broad subject further? Choose one of the following options.
26:56–27:02Types of Karma, the division into accumulated karma, fructifying karma, and current karma,
27:02–27:07sanshita, prarabdha, and kriyama, and their effects upon our lives.
27:07–27:12The role of desire and craving, how mental impulses and attachment draw the living being back into
27:12–27:15the cycle of birth.
27:15–27:19The cycle of rebirth and consciousness, the transition of consciousness at death and
27:19–27:22the process by which the next birth is determined.

Plain text

दिखश, फुल्स कुएशन प्रदूस दिखश विन अस, सच्छ अस इक्ससश अप्ष्मट तु अबज्यक्ट, अवविश्चन तुर्धिट, अन डिलुजझन। Activity, under the influence of attachment, aversion, and delusion, a person performs good or bad actions. Birth and rebirth, to experience the results of these actions, one must be born repeatedly. Suffering, wherever there is a body in birth, suffering in the forms of disease, grief, and old age naturally occurs. Viewed in reverse order, birth causes suffering, action causes birth, defects cause action, And the fundamental cause of the defects is false cognition. Only when this chain is broken is apavarga or liberation attained. If false cognition is the root of all suffering, its sole remedy is knowledge of reality, true cognition. According to Nyaya, when the true nature of the self, body, and material world is known, delusion disappears. The cycle is reversed as follows. Knowledge of reality destroys false cognition. When false cognition is destroyed, defects such as attachment and aversion cease. When the defect sees, erroneous activity no longer occurs. When action ceases, rebirth no longer occurs. When there is no birth, all suffering comes completely to an end in apavarga or liberation. This is the principle reason Nyaaya places such emphasis upon the means of knowledge, reasoning, and doctrine. Without correctly employing perception, inference, comparison, and verbal testimony, knowledge of reality cannot be attained. Having understood the perspectives of Nyaaya, with its reasoning and inference, and Kravaka, with perception alone, which is more practical for making decisions in daily life, and why? Nyaya philosophy is far more practical for decisions in everyday life. The Karbaka doctrine that accepts perception alone may sound strict and rational, but it would make life impossible. If we accepted only what we directly see, we would have to reject science, history, and every plan concerning the future. Nyaya allows the use of inference and the testimony of experts, enabling us to proceed safely through life. a modern example. Suppose a person wants to buy a new mobile phone. Seeing the phone's screen and design in the shop is perception. Considering its battery capacity and processor and concluding that it will function well throughout the day is inference. Watching a technology expert's video or review on the internet is verbal testimony. If a person buys a phone merely from its external shine and appearance without inferring the capacity of its processor or battery and without consulting any expert review, would that be a sound decision? Experience shows that decisions of this kind require not only perception but inference and testimony as well. Their indispensability demonstrates how relevant and practical the sage godama's nyaya philosophy remains in the modern age. Without inference and verbal testimony, decisions concerning the future unseen matters and expert knowledge remain incomplete. Correct use of the means of knowledge produces knowledge of reality, removes false cognition and weakens the root cause of suffering. In yaya, whether a cognition is valid or erroneous is determined on the basis of the capacity for successful activity, practical success. In simple terms, a cognition is treated as true when it succeeds in practice. If If it directs us toward the correct action and fulfills our purpose, it is valid cognition. If it disappoints us or fails to fulfill the purpose, it is invalid cognition or error. For example, suppose water appears to be lying on a village road at a distance. A person goes there. If water is actually found and can be touched, the activity succeeds and the cognition is valid. If, on arriving, one discovers only sunlight glittering like a mirage and dust blowing there, the activity fails and the cognition is an illusion. If a rope lying on the road in darkness is mistaken for a snake, how can Nyaya's doctrine of practical success be used to test whether the cognition is true or merely an illusion? According to Nyaya, one must perform an action based upon the cognition in order to test its validity. If one merely flees in fear after taking the rope to be a snake, the illusion remains in the mind. Through the capacity for successful activity, it may be tested as follows. Approach it with a torch or stick. If it hisses or moves like a snake, the cognition was true. If it remains motionless in the light and can be lifted and used to tie something, the actual function of a rope, it is established that it is not a snake but merely a rope. The first cognition was therefore an illusion. The successor failure of action has thus established the truth or falsity of the cognition. In social media and news, mistaking invalid cognition for truth has become extremely common today. When fake news, a deep fake image or video, or a sensational claim appears on social media, people often accepted as true and immediately shared without practical verification, fact-checking, tracing the original source. From the standpoint of Nyaya, people here mistake the statement of an unreliable person or unknown website for trustworthy testimony and believe it without examination. This is like raising an alarm after mistaking a rope for a snake in darkness without first switching on a torch. During the COVID-19 pandemic, many misleading messages circulated on WhatsApp and social media claiming that eating the leaves of particular tree or drinking a particular decoction would cure the illness immediately. Many people accepted these statements as true without consulting a physician, that is, without trustworthy testimony or examining scientific evidence, that is, without testing practical efficacy. Only when they followed the advice and obtained no benefit did the practical failure reveal that the cognition was not true but merely an illusion. Nyaia teaches an important lesson here, a statement does not become true merely because many people repeat or share it. Evidence and practical verification are indispensable to truth. Nyaia's five-membered argument, called the inference with five members, is a very clear method of establishing a proposition logically. Let us understand it through the famous example of the mountain, fire, and smoke. Proposition, the claim to be established. Example, there is fire on that mountain. Reason, the ground for accepting the claim. Example, because smoke is rising there. Universal rule with example, a rule applying everywhere together with a familiar instance. Example, wherever there is smoke, there is fire, as in a kitchen. Application, applying the rule to the present case of the mountain. Example, this mountain too is smoky like the kitchen. Conclusion, the final establishment of the claim. Example, therefore, it is established that there is fire on that mountain. These five members are not confined to philosophy, they provide a strong basis for reasoning in modern science and legal procedure as well. Now consider an exercise. Suppose the following new claim is made. Proposition, Rama is ill. Reason, because his body is very hot, he has a fever. 3. Universal rule with example, wherever a person's body is abnormally hot, some illnesses present, as in a patient admitted to hospital with fever. Application. This rule applies to Rama because, like the hospital patient, Rama's body is abnormally hot. Conclusion. Therefore, it is established that Rama is ill. Notice that the final member, the conclusion, returns to and establishes the first member, the proposition. Nyaya's five-membered argument can remove confusion and present any matter with logical clarity. The Buddha described four noble truths in his teaching. 1. Suffering Suffering is found throughout the world. 2. The origin of suffering Suffering has a cause, principally craving, desire, or attachment. 3. The cessation of suffering Suffering can come to an end, a condition called Nerva. 4. The path to the cessation of suffering There is a definite path to freedom from suffering, the Noble Eightfold Path. Nya'ya 2 titta-zapa-varga, release from suffering. In this view, false cognition is the root cause of suffering, false cognition produces defects, defects produce action, and action perpetuates the cycle of suffering. A question for comparative study now arises. Buddhist philosophy says that craving is the cause of suffering, whereas Nyaaya says that ignorance or false cognition is its cause. Suppose a person sees an advertisement for a new and very expensive mobile phone. Ignorance or false cognition, the person comes to believe mistakenly that possessing the phone will bring permanent happiness or greatly enhance social prestige. This is Nyaaya's false cognition because pleasure from material objects is never permanent. Desire or craving, because of this false belief, an intense desire or attachment arises to obtain the phone at any cost. This is the Buddhist concept of craving. It is clear that ignorance or erroneous understanding has produced the mistaken desire. At this point, the two philosophies converge. When the person borrows money to buy the phone and it breaks, ignorance and craving together become direct suffering. The sequence may be understood as follows. Action, driven by ignorance and intense desire, the person goes beyond personal means and takes a loan. According to Nyaya, this is action motivated by false cognition. Result, every material object, such as a phone, is perishable and it eventually breaks. Suffering, when the phone breaks, the momentary pleasure ends, while the stress of repaying the loan and grief over losing the phone remain. The cycle therefore operates as follows, ignorance or false thought desire or attachment action, such as borrowing suffering in the forms of grief and stress. Both Buddhist and Naya philosophy hold that ignorance and attachment toward material objects are fundamental sources of suffering. The sequence in the cycle of suffering is false cognition, desire, action, and suffering. Each philosophy has its own path for breaking this cycle. Buddhist philosophy in Nirva, through the Noble Eightfold Path, the Buddha principally teaches the control and extinction of desire or craving. Nyaya philosophy in Apavarga or Liberation, Nyaya holds that knowledge of reality, acquired through the correct use of the means of knowledge, destroys ignorance. The goal of both philosophies is complete release from suffering, after which the living being need not be born again. Their central emphasis in attaining this goal, however, differs. The two systems, Nyaya and Buddhism emphasize different links in the chain as the point at which it should be broken. Ignorance or false cognition, Nyaya holds that if the desire or craving, Buddhist philosophy holds that desire is the principal fuel, and controlling it is the most practical and direct remedy. For bringing genuine peace and transformation into life, removing ignorance through knowledge of reality and controlling desire through the restraint of craving are deeply interconnected. When both philosophical traditions, Nyaaya and Buddhism, are considered, each appears incomplete without the other. Removing ignorance, the Nyaaya approach, as long as the true nature of objects, the world, and oneself is not understood, false cognition persists and happiness continues to be sought in the wrong things. When true knowledge of reality is attained, delusion ends of itself. Controlling desire, the Buddhist approach, when delusion disappears, the intense craving produced by ignorance is automatically restrained. Which of the two should be chosen depends upon the individual. The two paths strengthen each other. The path of knowledge in Nyaya, first remove erroneous thought and delusion so that things are seen as they truly are in desire than ceases of itself. The path of discipline in Buddhism, first control desire and habit so that the mind becomes steady in truth can then be understood more easily. Consider a practical example. Suppose someone wants to stop wasting unnecessary time on a mobile phone, which would be more effective in bringing about the change, first restricting the habit by controlling desire, first understanding where and why the time is being lost and thereby removing ignorance. The two methods have distinct importance and operate differently in practice. Understanding first removing ignorance, examining where one's time is going, for example by checking screen time, reveals the actual problem. This resembles Nya's knowledge of reality, which removes delusion. Restricting first, controlling desire, installing an app blocker or turning off notifications resembles the Buddhist restraint of craving, which immediately checks the activity. A change imposed by forcefully restraining desire without understanding its cause is often not permanent. Suppressed desire and mental strain may cause the old habit to return. This is like cutting only the upper branches of a tree while leaving the root ignorance untouched beneath the soil. As long as the root remains, the tree grows again. Nyaya and Buddhist philosophy agree that a more lasting solution comes from inner understanding rather than from external restraint alone. Taking the analysis further, which should receive first priority when a person seeks to change a daily habit, identifying the cause and removing ignorance or controlling desire through restraint? Practical life shows that most people first restrain desire for immediate relief, but identifying the cause and removing ignorance becomes indispensable for permanent change. Thus, when abandoning a bad habit, first recognizing its root cause helps eliminate it at the root. From one's own experience, what seems to be the first effective step in adopting a new habit or abandoning an old one, awareness of the cause, or discipline that restrains desire? These steps play an important role at their proper time in daily life. Awareness of the cause, discovering the root cause of a problem provides a long-term solution because the root itself is cleared away. Discipline or restraint of desire, when a situation is urgent, as when temptation suddenly arises, discipline offers immediate protection. In practice, people often begin with discipline in an emergency, but awareness of the cause is indispensable for making the change permanent. Suppose a person must abandon a serious habit such as addiction or excessive use of social media. Should the person begin with discipline and later move toward awareness, or first cultivate awareness and then apply discipline? Both approaches have distinct uses in the case of serious habits such as addiction or excessive social media use. first immediate control, when the condition is severe and dangerous, immediate restraint is necessary to halt physical or psychological harm. Awareness first, deep understanding, in serious habits, however, discipline alone is unlikely to endure unless the person identifies the root cause of… in practice, one generally begins with discipline as an emergency measure, but awareness of the cause must immediately be added to make the change permanent. When discipline breaks down, it may immediately be understood as weak control over desire, since at that moment the person fails to resist temptation. Behind the weakness, however, lies deeper ignorance, failure to understand the mental state or trigger pushing the person toward the temptation. Considering both aspects, when someone breaks discipline, what is more necessary in that immediate moment, restraint of desire, or understanding the root cause through awareness? When temptation is intense, restraint operates like a break that immediately checks it and prevents immediate harm. But if the person merely restrains the act without understanding the underlying cause, mental pressure toward the habit persists. Restraint therefore gives immediate protection, whereas awareness eliminates the habit at its root. Can a serious habit be abandoned permanently through restraint alone, or is awareness necessarily required? It is generally not possible to abandon a serious habit permanently through restraint or discipline alone. Restraint acts as an immediate shield, but awareness, a profound understanding of the cause, destroys the true root. Until the mental trigger or ignorance is understood, the person will return to the old habit as soon as restraint weakens. The first practical step for developing such awareness of causes in daily life is self-observation. This arises when, at the very moment a habit or reaction occurs, a person observes without immediately suppressing it and identifies the principal thought or circumstance that triggers it. For example, before picking up the phone without any necessary task, one recognizes whether the true cause is boredom, loneliness, or stress. In practice, beginning self-observation by writing somewhere, for example in a diary or notepad, often brings greater clarity. Writing, when a habit is recorded on paper, it becomes concrete data that makes the situation clearly visible. Mental reflection, this requires no external instrument and may be done easily, but distraction often prevents it from remaining stable for long. Both methods can be effective according to convenience. The principal purpose is not use of a particular instrument but regular attention to one's thoughts. Moving to practical application, when a person first sits down to record a small habit such as unnecessarily checking the phone, which two principal details such as time and mental state should be included in the note. When recording a habit for the first time, the following two details should principally be written. Time and context record the time of day and the particular circumstance in which the habit occurs most often, for example, while sitting idle or during stress. Mental state record the actual condition of mind at that moment, such as boredom, loneliness, or mental fatigue. Together these two details bring the habits trigger clearly into view. A step-by-step analysis based upon both pieces of information is necessary to reach the habit's root cause. After recording the time and mental state, one should analyze them by repeatedly asking why and identifying patterns. For example, if repeated entries show that the phone is checked most often during boredom or loneliness, the data reveal that the problem is connected not merely with using the phone but with the underlying mental emptiness. emptiness. Once the mental state has been identified as the principle trigger, what further question should the person ask in order to reach the root ignorance underlying the habit? After identifying a mental state such as boredom or loneliness, one must determine what one actually expects from the object at that moment in order to reach the false cognition or ignorance. The person should therefore ask, Testing the delusion, am I under the illusion that looking at this phone will permanently fill my emptiness or loneliness? To test this, attention should be given to the aftermath of using the object. After finishing with the phone, one should ask, Testing permanence, did my boredom or loneliness truly disappear permanently, or did the emptiness return even more forcefully as soon as I put the phone down? Once the truth has been tested in this way, the layers of delusion or ignorance gradually begin to open. When a person sees that the material object is not fulfilling the underlying mental need, controlling the desire or craving for it becomes easier. Because the mind no longer believes that this thing will satisfy me, relinquishing the temptation ceases to be an intense struggle. The Effective Truth, When Delusion is Removed, Craving Automatically Weakens. Ease of Restraint, Forceful Suppression is no longer required, Control arises naturally from understanding. When awareness and restraint completely cut the roots of ignorance and craving, the final condition is called liberation in Naya and Nerva in Buddhism. The principal characteristics of the final condition are as follows. Liberation in Naya, the self is permanently freed from every form of suffering and from the cycle of birth and death. Nerva in Buddhism, the fires of craving, attachment and aversion are completely extinguished, which supreme peace is attained. The final goal of both philosophies is to eradicate the suffering connected with the chain of ignorance and desire. Considering the entire journey, which foundation appears most necessary for breaking the cycle permanently, external restraint or inner awareness, the understanding of truth. The entire journey makes clear that inner awareness, the understanding of truth, is the fundamental basis that eliminates the problem at its root, while external restraint functions as an immediate protective shield. The two complement each other. Now that a person has understood both aspects, what should one think? Once awareness, the apprehension of truth has arisen, does restraint come automatically, or must discipline still be practiced separately in daily life even when awareness is present? Even after awareness has arisen, discipline, continued practice is still separately required in daily life. Awareness or apprehension of truth enables us to distinguish right from wrong and shows us the correct direction in which to proceed. Discipline, or continuous practice, helps break deeply rooted physical and mental patterns formed over many years and establish new habits. For example, a person may fully understand that unnecessary phone use wastes time, this is awareness. Yet even after acquiring that knowledge, the person must repeatedly exercise discipline to stop the hand at the immediate moment of temptation, until the new mental disposition becomes stable. In practice, small steps or micro habits are considered more effective and lasting in changing habits. strict rules, imposing a very large rule all at once places excessive pressure on willpower. This often produces mental fatigue after a few days, and the rule is then broken. Microhabits these gradually establish a new pattern without a major mental struggle, allowing the mind to adopt it naturally and without resistance. When a person takes a small step, for example, keeping the phone away for only five minutes, The mind does not treat it as a great danger or a severe rule. A major change arouses resistance in the mind. A small step keeps that resistance quiet and prevents mental strain from increasing. To examine this more deeply, what should one think? Once the mind becomes comfortable with this small beginning, such as five minutes, how does that small success motivate the person to proceed further and gradually increase the duration? When a person succeeds in a small beginning, its psychological effect directly strengthens self-efficacy. Momentum of success. When the mind completes five minutes without a major struggle, it gains a psychological victory. This encourages the person to repeat the same act the next day. Reduction of fear and resistance. The fear, I shall not be able to do so much all at once, disappears because the duration is small, such as 5 minutes, and the mind feels at ease. Having seen that small steps create momentum, what most helps a person maintain that small habit consistently throughout this process? The most effective way to maintain a small habit consistently is to attach it to an already established daily habit, a method known as habit stacking. Q, when a person connects a new small step, for example, keeping the phone away for 5 with an old regular activity, such as immediately before going to sleep each night, the mind adopts it as an automatic routine. Karma and rebirth are profound philosophical subjects explaining how every act is connected with the cycle of life. Here we shall together understand how karma bears fruit and how the cycle of rebirth operates. According to Indian philosophy, every karma, whether thought, speech, or action, creates an energy called a sastra. These sastras compel the living being to take another birth until consciousness is completely liberated. From which aspect would one prefer to begin in order to understand this broad subject further? Choose one of the following options. Types of Karma, the division into accumulated karma, fructifying karma, and current karma, sanshita, prarabdha, and kriyama, and their effects upon our lives. The role of desire and craving, how mental impulses and attachment draw the living being back into the cycle of birth. The cycle of rebirth and consciousness, the transition of consciousness at death and the process by which the next birth is determined.

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