UPSC Prelims 2013–2026 — Ancient India
1. Prehistoric Period and Indus Valley Civilisation
Q1. Salihundam Andhra Pradesh Rock-cut cave Shrines In which of the above rows is the given information correctly matched?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3. Statement 1 is not correct as no temples or palaces like those in Mesopotamia have been found in Harappan sites Statement 2 is correct since religious practices centered around fertility are evidenced by clay Mother Goddess figurines and male deity seals Statement 3 is not correct because there is no conclusive evidence that Harappans knew about or used horses.
Q2. Which one of the following ancient towns is well-known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs? (2021)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) Dholavira. This choice matches the concept tested under Prehistoric Period and Indus Valley Civilisation; the other alternatives do not satisfy the wording of the item.
Q3. Which one of the following is not a Harappan site? (2019)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Sohgaura. it is known for early copper plate inscriptions, whereas the Indus Valley Civilization was centered in present-day Pakistan and western India and began around 2500 BC.
Q4. They employed horse-drawn chariots in warfare. Select the correct statement/statements using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (c) 1, 2 and 3. Sohgaura in Uttar Pradesh is not a Harappan site; it is known for early copper plate inscriptions, whereas the Indus Valley Civilization was centered in present-day Pakistan and western India and began around 2500 BC.
2. Vedic and Later Vedic Age
Q5. Upanishads were composed earlier than the Puranas. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Both 1 and 2. Statement 1 is correct: The Ramayana and Rigveda mention chariots, swords, and armor used by Aryans, but such evidence is absent in the Indus Valley Civilization. Statement 2 is not correct: Rigvedic Aryans used gold, copper, and bronze (later silver and iron), but the Indus Valley people primarily used silver and copper; iron was unknown to them.
Q6. Rigvedic Aryans had domesticated the horse, whereas there is no evidence of Indus Valley people having been aware of this animal. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (d) 1, 2 and 3. Choice (d) is the right one: The memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories, or epic tales was the work of a group of people, the Sutas and Magadhas. During the first stage (from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD), the task of collecting information and presenting it in literary form was the special task assigned to the Sutas and Magadhas (bards and chroniders), who were the descendants of priestly families of the Vedic period.
Q7. With reference to the cultural history of India, the memorising of chronicles, dynasty histories, and epic tales was the profession of who of the following? (2016)
Explanation: Correct option: (d) Magadha 29. Choice (d) is the right one: The memorising of chronicles, dynastic histories, or epic tales was the work of a group of people, the Sutas and Magadhas. During the first stage (from the 4th century BC to the 4th century AD), the task of collecting information and presenting it in literary form was the special task assigned to the Sutas and Magadhas (bards and chroniders), who were the descendants of priestly families of the Vedic period.
3. Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Age
Q8. Ashokan inscriptions suggest that the ‘Pradeshika’, ‘Rajuka’ and Yukta’ were important officers at the (2025)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) district-level administration. At the district level, the officials listed were Pradeshika, Rajuka and Yukta. Pradeshika was the overall in-charge of the district. The Yukta was a junior officer giving secretarial kind of assistance to the other two. The officials fulfilled the following duties: survey and assessment of land; tours and inspections; revenue collection, and maintaining law and order.
Q9. With reference to ancient India (600-322 BC), consider the following pairs: (2025) Territorial region River flowing in the region I. Asmaka : Godavari II. Kamboja : Vipas III. Avanti : Mahanadi IV. Kosala : Sarayu How many of the pairs given above are correctly matched?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Only two. Statements I and IV are correct: Assaka was located in the Godavari valley and Sarayu was the main river of Kosala during the Ramayana period Statements II and III are incorrect: The Vipas River flows southeast away from Kamboja, and Avanti included areas around Ujjayini and the Narmadā valley, not limited to them.
Q10. Tathagata Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q11. Which one of the following is a work attributed to playwright Bhasa? (2024)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Madhyama-vyayoga. Choice (c) is the right one: Madhyama-vyayoga is a Sanskrit play by Bhasa based on the Mahabharata Options (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect: Kavyalankara (Bhamaha), Natyashastra (Bharata Muni), and Mahabhashya (Patanjali) are treatises on poetics, performing arts, and grammar, respectively.
Q12. In which one of the following regions was Dhanyakataka, which flourished as a prominent Buddhist centre under the Mahasanghikas, located? (2023)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) Andhra. Dhanyakataka, or Amaravati in Andhra Pradesh, was a prominent Buddhist center under the Mahasanghika sect, renowned for the Amaravati Stupa and monastic complexes, and significantly contributed to the spread of Buddhism in South India.
Q13. Stupa was a votive and commemorative structure in Buddhist tradition. How many of the statements given above are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Only two. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q14. “Souls are not only the property of animal and plant life, but also of rocks, running water and many other natural objects not looked on as living by other religious sects.” The above statement reflects one of the core beliefs of which one of the following religious sects of ancient India? (2023)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Jainism. According to Jainism, souls exist not only in animals and plants but also in stones, rocks, water, and other natural objects.The universe operates through the interaction of living souls (jiva) and five types of non-living entities (ajiva): ether, movement, rest, time, and matter.
Q15. Sittanavasal : Jain cave shrine How many of the above pairs are correctly matched?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Only two. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q16. If a son born to a female slave was fathered by her master, the son was entitled to the legal status of the master’s son. Which of the statements given above are correct ?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q17. Kalsi Karnataka How many pairs given above are correctly matched ?
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Only: three pairs. Choice (c) is the right one: Madhyama-vyayoga is a Sanskrit play by Bhasa based on the Mahabharata Options (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect: Kavyalankara (Bhamaha), Natyashastra (Bharata Muni), and Mahabhashya (Patanjali) are treatises on poetics, performing arts, and grammar, respectively.
Q18. Who among the following rulers advised his subjects through this inscription? (2020) “Whosoever praises his religious sect or blames other sects out of excessive devotion to his own sect, with the view of glorifying his own sect, he rather injures his own sect very severely.”
Explanation: Correct option: (a) Ashoka. Major Rock Edict XII emphasizes religious tolerance, urging people not to glorify their own sect by denigrating others.
Q19. The deification of Buddha by Mahasanghikas fostered Mahayana Buddhism. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q20. With reference to the cultural history of India, which one of the following is the correct description of the term ‘paramitas’? (2020)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Perfections whose attainment led to the Bodhisattva path. Along with the Noble Eightfold Path to attain Nibbana, Buddhist traditions also speak of cultivating Paramis (Southern) or Paramitas (Eastern/Northern)—perfections essential for a Bodhisattva to become a self-Enlightened Universal Buddha.
Q21. Image worship and rituals. Which of the above is/are the feature / features of Mahayana Buddhism?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 1 and 2 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q22. In which of the following relief sculpture inscriptions is ‘Ranyo Ashoka’ (King Ashoka) mentioned along with the stone portrait of Ashoka? (2019)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) Kanganahalli. Kanaganahalli in Karnataka is a major Buddhist site, notable for its Mahastupa and the only inscribed portrait of Emperor Ashoka; Sanchi is known for its Great Stupa commissioned by Ashoka, while Shahbazgarhi in Pakistan is noted for Ashokan inscriptions.
Q23. With reference to the religious practices in India, the “Sthanakvasi” sect belongs to (2018)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Jainism. Sthanakvasi is a sect of Svetambara Jainism founded by merchant Lavaji in 1653 AD. Rooted in the teachings of 15th-century reformer Lonka, it rejects idol worship and emphasizes a non- 34 Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Age-Explanation iconic path to soul purification and Moksha.
Q24. With reference to India history, who among the following is a future Buddha, yet to come to save the world? (2018)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Maitreya. He is regarded as the successor to Gautama Buddha.
Q25. Sarvastivadin held that the constituents of phenomena were not wholly momentary but existed forever in a latent form. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 only. Statements I and IV are correct: Assaka was located in the Godavari valley and Sarayu was the main river of Kosala during the Ramayana period Statements II and III are incorrect: The Vipas River flows southeast away from Kamboja, and Avanti included areas around Ujjayini and the Narmadā valley, not limited to them.
Q26. Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor Ashoka? (2016)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) James Prinsep. Choice (b) is the right one: In 1837, James Prinsep deciphered the edicts of Ashoka.
Q27. Bodhisattva delays achieving his own salvation to help all sentient beings on their path to it. Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
Q28. Magadha Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (c) 1, 3 and 4 only. Choice (c) is the right one: Madhyama-vyayoga is a Sanskrit play by Bhasa based on the Mahabharata Options (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect: Kavyalankara (Bhamaha), Natyashastra (Bharata Muni), and Mahabhashya (Patanjali) are treatises on poetics, performing arts, and grammar, respectively.
Q29. Magadha Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (c) 3 and 4 only. Choice (c) is the right one: Madhyama-vyayoga is a Sanskrit play by Bhasa based on the Mahabharata Options (a), (b), and (d) are incorrect: Kavyalankara (Bhamaha), Natyashastra (Bharata Muni), and Mahabhashya (Patanjali) are treatises on poetics, performing arts, and grammar, respectively.
Q30. Which one of the following describes best the concept of Nirvana in Buddhism? (2013)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) The extinction of the flame of desire 32 Mauryan and Post-Mauryan Age. Nibbana (Sanskrit: Nirvana) is the highest state of well-being described by the Buddha. It signifies the extinguishing of the fires of greed, hatred, and delusion, which cause suffering.
Q31. Karma is the bane of the soul and must be ended. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Option 1 is not correct: Mahavira was called Nayaputta, meaning “son of the Nayas” Options 2 and 3 are correct: The Buddha belonged to the Gautama clan and was also called Shakyamuni, Bhagavat, and Tathagata.
4. Gupta and Post-Gupta Age
Q32. Fa-hien (Faxian), the Chinese pilgrim, travelled to India during the reign of (2025)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Chandragupta II. Chinese Buddhist pilgrim-scholar Fa Hsien/Fah Hian/Faxian travelled to India (c. 399-414 CE) during Gupta ruler Chandragupta II’s regime.
Q33. Yadava How many of the above dynasties established their kingdoms in the early eighth century AD?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Only two. Later Guptas ruled Magadha after the original Gupta decline. The Paramaras ruled Malwa, not Magadha. Pushyabhutis of Thanesar ruled northern India, especially Haryana. Maukharis ruled parts of U.P. and Magadha, including Kannauj.
Q34. The Mitakshara system deals with the matters related to the property held by male members only of a family, whereas the Dayabhaga system deals with the matters rélated to the property held by both male and female members of a family. Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 only. Both schools applied to Hindus, not divided by caste but by geographic region. Under the Mitakshara school, sons become coparceners by birth, whereas in the Dayabhaga school, inheritance rights arise after the property holder’s death. While both schools address property rights for males and females, Dayabhaga offers comparatively greater inheritance rights to women than Mitakshara.
Q35. The Maitrakas of Valabhi Select the correct answer using the code given below.
Explanation: Correct option: (a) 1, 2 and 5. In the Gupta period, Ghantasala, Kadura, and Chaul were ports handling foreign trade.
Q36. Which of the following phrases defines the nature of the ‘Hundi’ generally referred to in the sources of the post-Harsha period? (2020)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) A bill of exchange. In the Medieval period, Hundis were instruments of credit or bills of exchange that allowed easy money transfer across regions.
Q37. With reference to the period of the Gupta dynasty in ancient India, the towns Ghantasala, Kadura, and Chaul were known as (2020)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) ports handling foreign trade. In the Gupta period, Ghantasala, Kadura, and Chaul were ports handling foreign trade.
Q38. With reference to the history of India, the terms ‘kulyavapa’ and ‘dronavapa’ denote (2020)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) measurement of land. Inscriptions of Gupta period mention various land types: Kshetra (cultivable), Khila (uncultivable), Aprahata (forest), Gopata Sarah (pasture), and Vasti (habitable). Land was measured in units like Nivartana, Kulyavapa, and Dronavapa.
Q39. Kalidasa is associated with Chandra Gupta-II Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Both schools applied to Hindus, not divided by caste but by geographic region. Under the Mitakshara school, sons become coparceners by birth, whereas in the Dayabhaga school, inheritance rights arise after the property holder’s death. While both schools address property rights for males and females, Dayabhaga offers comparatively greater inheritance rights to women than Mitakshara.
Q40. With reference to forced labour (Vishti) in India during the Gupta period, which one of the following statements is correct? (2019)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) It was considered a source of income for the State, a sort of tax paid by the people.. Choice (a) is the right one: In the Gupta Age, “vishti” referred to forced labour imposed by the state or local authorities as a form of tax, not to wage labour or work by the eldest son.
Q41. The tradesmen had to pay duties at ferries and barrier stations. Select the correct answer using the code given below:
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 and 3 only. Both schools applied to Hindus, not divided by caste but by geographic region. Under the Mitakshara school, sons become coparceners by birth, whereas in the Dayabhaga school, inheritance rights arise after the property holder’s death. While both schools address property rights for males and females, Dayabhaga offers comparatively greater inheritance rights to women than Mitakshara.
5. Sangam Age
Q42. Who among the following rulers in ancient India had assumed the titles ‘Mattavilasa’, Vichitrachitta’ and ‘Gunabhara’? (2025)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) Mahendravarman I. This choice matches the concept tested under Sangam Age; the other alternatives do not satisfy the wording of the item.
Q43. With reference to ancient South India, Korkai, Poompuhar and Muchiri were well known as (2023)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) ports. Chola, Chera and Pandyas were the early dynasties of the Sangam Age. Each of them had ports which were used to trade with Other countries. Example: Muziris, Korkai, Puhar (Poompuhar), Tondai, Arikamedu.
Q44. Which one of the following explains the practice of Vattakirutal’ as mentioned in Sangam poems? (2023)
Explanation: Correct option: (d) A king defeated in a battle committing ritual suicide by starving himself to death. Vatakkiruttal (Vaṭakkiruttal, ‘fasting facing north’), also Vadakiruthal and vadakiruttal, was a Tamil ritual of fasting till death. It was especially widespread during the Sangam age. The Tamil kings, in order to save their honour, and prestige, were prepared to meet their death facing North (‘Vatakkiruttal’), and never would they turn their back in battle. It was a Tamil martial.
Q45. Which one of the following statements about Sangam literature in ancient South India is correct ? (2022)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) The social classification of Varna was known to Sangam poets.. Sangam Literature has references to material culture and war tactics and ethics. therefore statements a and c are incorrect. Statement d is incorrect because Sangam literature doesn’t denotes magical forces as irrational. Aṇaṅku is a phenomenon of sacred power described in ancient Tamil literature such as the sangam literature.
Q46. Pala dynasty founded by Gopala What is the correct chronological order of the above events, starting from the earliest time?
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 3 – 1 – 4 – 2. Sangam Literature has references to material culture and war tactics and ethics. therefore statements a and c are incorrect. Statement d is incorrect because Sangam literature doesn’t denotes magical forces as irrational. Aṇaṅku is a phenomenon of sacred power described in ancient Tamil literature such as the sangam literature.
Q47. Ghatikas Colleges generally attached to the temples Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?
Explanation: Correct option: (d) 1 and 3 39. Vatakkiruttal (Vaṭakkiruttal, ‘fasting facing north’), also Vadakiruthal and vadakiruttal, was a Tamil ritual of fasting till death. It was especially widespread during the Sangam age. The Tamil kings, in order to save their honour, and prestige, were prepared to meet their death facing North (‘Vatakkiruttal’), and never would they turn their back in battle. It was a Tamil martial.
UPSC Prelims 2026 Additions
Q48. Consider the following assertion: In the Pleistocene period either the Yamuna once flowed into the Indus, or the Sutlej flowed into the Yamuna and one major tributary of either had shifted from the Ganga to the Indus or vice versa. Which of the following is/are the basis of the above assertion? 1. The Nadi-Sukta of the Rigveda 2. The explorations of the Sutlej and the Yamuna by Robert Bruce Foote 3. The presence of the same species of dolphins in both the Indus and the Ganga river systems Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (d) 3. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q1. Nadi-Sukta lists rivers of the Vedic world — does NOT establish Pleistocene river shifts Nadi-Sukta Hymn forms part of Rigveda (Mandala- 10) — the “River Hymn.” It lists rivers known to the Vedic people from east to west: Ganga, Yamuna, Sarasvati, Shutudri (Sutlej), Parushni (Ravi), Asikni (Chenab), Vitasta (Jhelum) etc.
Q49. Which of the following pairs of ancient and modern names of rivers is/are correctly matched? 1. Vitasta: Chenab 2. Asikni: Jhelum 3. Parushni: Ravi 4. Yavyavati: Beas Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) 3 only. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q3. Vitasta: The ancient name for the Jhelum river is Vitasta.
Q50. Which of the following pairs of the king and his dynasty in early historical Tamilakam is/are NOT correctly matched? 1. Senguttuvan: Chera 2. Udiyanjeral: Chola 3. Nedunjeliyan: Pandya Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) 2 only. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q5. Pair 1 is correctly matched: Senguttuvan (also known as Cheran Senguttuvan or the Red Chera) was a prominent ruler of the Chera dynasty. He is celebrated in the Tamil epic Silappadikaram and is credited with establishing the Pattini (Kannagi) cult. Pair 2 is not correctly matched: Udiyanjeral (Uthiyan Cheralathan) belonged to the Chera dynasty, not the Chola dynasty.
Q51. In which one among the following texts does the term kshetra-patni ('mistress of the field') originate? (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (b) Atharvaveda. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q10. The Rigveda contains numerous references to cultivation, fertility, and the importance of productive land, indicating that agriculture had begun to assume a significant role alongside the predominantly pastoral character of early Vedic society. Several hymns invoke divine blessings for abundant harvests, timely rainfall, fertile fields, and agricultural prosperity, reflecting the growing dependence on settled cultivation.
Q52. Consider the following statements: I. Pali texts contain the first definite references to coins, e.g., kahapana, nikkha, kamsa, and kakanika. II. The literary evidence from Pali texts is corroborated by archaeological evidence of punch-marked coins from many sites, most of them made of silver. The above statements have been associated with which of the following? 1. Emergence of urban life 2. Transition to money economy Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) Both 1 and 2. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q13. Statement 1 is correct. References to various types of coins in Pali literature point to the growth of trade and a vibrant commercial economy. The widespread recovery of punch-marked coins from archaeological sites further indicates the circulation of currency, which facilitated market transactions, supported specialised crafts and occupations, and enabled the movement of goods across regions.
Q53. Consider the following statements relating to the use of the place- value system in India: 1. The earliest epigraphic use of the place-value system in India is found in the Mankani plates from Gujarat (AD 595–596). 2. In the ninth century, place-values become general in inscriptions all over India. 3. The place-values have been found in Sanskrit inscriptions in South- east Asia as early as the seventh century. Which of the statements given above are correct? (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (d) 1, 2 and 3. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q17. Statement 1 is correct. The earliest known epigraphic evidence of the decimal place-value system in India is found in the Mankani (Sankheda) copper plates of Gujarat dated to 595– 596 CE. These inscriptions represent one of the earliest recorded uses of positional numerals in the Indian subcontinent.
Q54. Consider the following statements about the archaeological findings in Harappan towns: I. There is wide occurrence of spindle- whorls in the houses but absence of spinning wheels. II. Weights and measurement scales, complete with graduations have been discovered. III. There are houses built in large part with baked bricks, around relatively spacious courtyards, with their own wells, bathing platforms, and large rooms. Which of the following inferences can be drawn from the above statements? 1. Statement I suggests that spinning was a laborious activity done at home. 2. Statement II suggests the extent of the scientific knowledge that the Harappans possessed. 3. Statement III suggests the emergence of a common property system. Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (a) 1 and 2 only. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q18. Statement 1 is correct. Archaeological evidence such as spindle whorls, cotton threads, and impressions of woven textiles indicates that spinning and weaving were widely practised in Harappan society. The frequent occurrence of spindle whorls suggests that thread production was an significant and labour-intensive household activity.
Q55. Consider the following statements about the Rigvedic period: I. Irrigation from wells allowed agriculture to expand away from flood plains and strips on river margins into the present Punjab and Haryana plains having underground water levels reasonably close to the surface. II. Draught-animal power was employed to draw up water out of the wells. Which of the following information support/supports the above statements? 1. There is evidence in the Rigveda of the use of ashma chakra (stone pulley wheel) and ahava (strapped wooden pails) to draw up water. 2. Mention has been made in the Rigveda of the use of implements like parashu/kulisha (axe) and datra/sreni (sickle). 3. There is a history of the use of ox, even before the Rigveda, for ploughing the land and pulling the carts. Select the answer using the code given below: (2026)
Explanation: Correct option: (c) 1 and 3 only. Source: UPSC GS Paper I 2026, Q20. Statement 1 is correct. The Rigveda denotes ashma chakra (stone pulley wheels) and ahava (wooden buckets or pails used for drawing water). These references indicate the use of wells and simple water-lifting devices for irrigation, particularly in areas located away from river flood plains.